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1158 posts categorized "Medieval"

17 February 2023

Alexander, a medieval super-hero

Alexander the Great is a hero who transcends time and space, as our wonderful exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, demonstrates. In the Middle Ages, he was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies (Neuf Preux), a select group of illustrious heroes who represented the pinnacle of glory, courage and military leadership. The French word preux translates into English as ‘worthies’ but it is related to prouesse, equivalent to ‘prowess’ or ‘valour’. This virtue encompasses a host of chivalric qualities that were first associated with Olivier, hero of the French national epic, the Chanson de Roland.

An army marches out of a castle behind their king. A trumpeter leads the procession

Alexander leading his army, in the Roman d’Alexandre (Rouen, 1445) Royal MS 15 E VI f. 9r

The Nine Worthies are divided into three groups, each containing three famous men. The first group comprises three classical or ‘pagan’ heroes, among them Alexander the Great.

Classical Heroes: Alexander, Hector of Troy and Julius Caesar

Coronation scene. A man wearing red robes and fur is seated on a throne as two bishops lowers a crown onto his head

The coronation of Alexander the Great, in Le livre et le vraye histoire du bon roy Alixandre (Paris, c. 1420): Royal MS 20 B XX, f. 14r          

Horseriders meet, most are wearing armour, the man without armour wears a crown, a white dog plays by the feet of the horses.    An army of mounted knights moves through a landscape of cliffs. They are led over a river. One knight is on the bridge. Another has already crossed.

Hector with Priam, in L'Épître Othéa (Paris, c. 1410): Harley MS 4431, f. 136 

Julius Caesar leading his army, in Bellum Gallicum (Lille or Bruges, c. 1475): Royal MS 16 G VIII, f. 147v

The second group is made up of three biblical heroes from the Old Testament.

Old Testament Kings: Joshua, David and Judas Maccabeus

A man in armour kneels in prayer. His helmet is on the grass in front of him. He holds a spear, the top of which is behind held by a depiction of God A crowd watched a coronation taking place of a raised stage. The king kneels as two other lower a crown onto his head An army capturing a prisoner. A city in the background

Joshua receiving a lance from God, in Bible moralisée (Bruges, c. 1455): Add MS 15248, f. 54v

Coronation of David, in ‘Breviary of Queen Isabella of Castile’ (Bruges, c. 1497): Add MS 18851, f. 124r

Judas Maccabeus capturing a city, in Bible Historiale (Bruges, c. 1475): Royal MS 15 D I, f. 134r

The third group consists of Christian monarchs, including more contemporary figures.


Medieval Christian monarchs: Arthur, Charlemagne and Godfrey de Bouillon, the crusader king

Man wearing red robes, holding an orb and septre and wearing a crown rides into a city Two armies on horseback charge at each other. A man wearing a crown and holding a sword sits on a chair with a blue canopy behind it. Seven people are gathered around him
Arthur at Camelot, in Guiron le Courtois (Napes, c. 1360): Add MS 12228, f. 221v Charlemagne leading his army, in the Talbot-Shrewsbury Book: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 181v Godfrey in his palace, in Histoire de Godefroy, roy de Jerusalem (Bruges, late 15th century): Royal MS 17 F V, f. 3r

All nine exceptional characters were endowed with the attributes of a perfect medieval knight, as portrayed in these manuscript illuminations.

The earliest written description of the Nine Worthies is in Jacques de Longuyon’s Voeux du Paon, a French legend of the late 14th century linked to the Alexander Romance. Allegedly, while on a detour from Alexander’s final journey to Babylon, his young companions took the ‘Vows of the Peacock’ at a feast where roast peacock was served. By fulfilling these vows, they attempted to live up to the exceptional deeds of the nine greatest heroes of all time: ‘les ix millors qui fussent puis le commandement que Diex ot fait le ciel et la terre et le vent’ ('the nine best of all, since the sky, the earth and the wind were created by God’s commandment'). 

Eight figures behind a banqueting table. They are talking in pairs. A woman carries in a platter with a peacock on it

The roast peacock is brought to the table and vows are made, in Les Voeux du Paon (?England, c. 1390–1400): Add MS 30864, f. 1r

The deeds of each hero are listed, including those of Alexander, who is praised for his victories and conquests.

Apres fu Alixandres preus merveilleusement

 Il vainqui Nicholas et Dairon le persant

Et occist la vermine des desers d’Oriant

Il saisi Babyloine la fort cite plaisant

Ou il morut apres par empoisounement

En xii an il conquist tres viguereusement

Quanques on puet conquerre desous le firmament

'Then there was Alexander, marvellously valiant

He defeated Nicholas and Darius the Persian

And killed the vermin of the deserts of the Orient

And captured Babylon, that most pleasant city

Where he died afterwards by poisoning

In 12 years he strenuously conquered

As much as can be conquered under heaven.'

(Transcription based on Bodleian Library, Bodley MS 264 and Paul Meyer ‘Les Neuf Preux’ (1883); my translation.)

An army use tools to break snow and ice in order to cross a frozen river

Alexander and his army crossing a frozen river in Persia, in Des faiz du grant Alexandre (Bruges, c. 1475): Royal MS 15 D IV, f. 101v 

During the 15th and 16th centuries, the concept of the Nine Worthies spread throughout Europe. Tapestries were made for Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and the Duc de Berry, and pageants and parades on this theme were staged to mark important occasions. Panel paintings, medallions and engravings survive, and coats of arms were attributed to each of the heroes. 

Nine coats of arms arranged in three rows of three

The arms of the Nine Worthies (late 15th century): Harley MS 2169, f. 5v

Later, nine ‘most illustrious ladies’ were chosen to be placed alongside the famous men. One of these, Penthesilea of the Amazons, is reported to have met Alexander. (You can read more about them in our blogpost on the Nine Worthy Women.)

A King, wearing a crown, is seated on a throne. A group of women are led by their Queen toward him. The Queen wears a crown and is holding up keys to the king

Queen Penthesilea and the Amazons surrendering to Alexander the Great, in Histoire universelle (Acre, late 13th century): Add MS 15268, f. 203r

You can see this depiction of Queen Penthesilea and much more in Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth. The show ends soon, on 19 February, so don't delay!

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards the exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors.

 

Chantry Westwell

Follow us on Twitter @BLMedieval

16 February 2023

Knock, knock, knocking on heaven’s door

The British Library’s major exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, showcases how stories about this ancient ruler were transformed and spread across centuries, cultures and languages. Some of these legends take Alexander to the unknown realms of the world, to face fantastic beasts, amazing people and terrifying monsters. But one story takes him even further — to the gates of Paradise.

5 men stand in front of the walls to a city. One man carries a sword

Alexander’s army at the gates of Paradise, in Voyage au paradis terrestre, interpolated in the Roman d’Alexandre (Tournai, 1344): The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, Bodley MS 264, f. 185v (detail).

Put together around AD 500 by the most eminent Jewish scholars of the time, the Babylonian Talmud is the most important source of rabbinic code in Judaism. It collects the replies and statements of prominent Jewish rabbis about various issues and questions. One of these (Tractate Tamid 32b) records the following story.

In the course of his adventures in the mythical East, Alexander reached the entrance of the Garden of Eden and raised a loud voice, calling out: “Open the gate for me!” The sentry of the Garden of Eden said to him: “This is the gate of the Lord; the righteous shall enter into it. Since you are not righteous, you may not enter.” He said to them: "If I will not be admitted, at least give me something from inside." They gave him one eyeball. He brought it and he weighed all the gold and silver that he had against the eyeball, and yet the riches did not balance against the eyeball’s greater weight. He said to his philosophers: "What is this? Why does this eyeball outweigh everything?" They said: "It is the eyeball of a mortal person of flesh and blood, which is not satisfied ever." He said to them: "From where do you know that this is the reason for the unbalanced scale?" The philosophers answered him: "Take a small amount of dirt and cover the eye." He did so, and it was immediately balanced by its proper counterweight. The eye is never satisfied while it can see.

Black and white text in Hebrew
The Hebrew version of Alexander’s visit to Paradise from the Talmud (Tamid 62b), Babylonian Talmud (20 volumes), Nehardea edition, published by Vagshal (Jerusalem, 1988)

This allegorical story of human greed, first recorded in the Talmud, became very popular in Jewish culture and started a life of its own, spreading even beyond Judaism. In the 12th century, it appears in an interesting Latin narrative which, according to its title, was translated from Hebrew by a certain Rabbi Salomon and spread quickly in medieval western Europe. During the translation process, the original concept of an eyeball given to Alexander was transformed into a miraculous stone that outweighed everything but, if covered with dust, was lighter than anything else. The general morale of the Hebrew story also became simple and clearer. In Alexandri Magni iter ad Paradisum (Alexander’s journey to Paradise) the philosophers simply tell Alexander, “The stone is you, your majesty”.

Turned into another gloomy premonition of Alexander’s upcoming death and the collapse of his empire, the Latin story was soon incorporated into various medieval versions of the Alexander Romance. It appears in one of the most famous medieval manuscripts of the Alexander Romance in the Bodleian Library, incorporated in the French Roman d’Alexandre, with exquisite illustrations depicting Alexander’s army in front of the gates of Paradise and the measure and assessment of the wondrous stone.

Two miniatures. Left: men stand in discussion in front of sealed gates. Right: four men report to a fifith who wears a crown

The guardian of paradise gifts the wonderstone to Alexander’s army (left); Alexander and his philosophers assess it (right): Bodley MS 264, f. 186r (detail)

Transmitted in the French Roman d’Alexandre, the story was further adapted in other prose and poetic retellings of Alexander’s legends. In the 16th-century Scots version of the Alexander Romance by Gilbert Hay, the mysterious gift Alexander receives from Paradise is transformed into a miraculous apple that changes colour and outweighs everything else, but becomes incredibly light-weighted when covered in clay. The changing colour of the apple and the shifting of its weight are both premonitions to Alexander that he should “think that þow has schorte tyme for to liff…”

Handwritten text in scots language

Alexander receives the miraculous apple from Paradise, in tGilbert Hay, The Buike off King Allexander the Conqueroure (Scotland, 16th century): Add MS 40732, f. 228r

The incredible journey of the story of Alexander’s failed attempt to visit Paradise from 6th-century Hebrew sources through Latin adaptations and medieval vernacular legends is just one of the many legends are featured in Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth. You can visit in person until 19th February 2023 or explore more online at bl.uk/alexander-the-great.

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards the exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors.

 

Peter Toth

Follow us on Twitter @BLMedieval

15 February 2023

Alexander the Great: a life in pictures

The Talbot Shrewsbury Book (Royal MS 15 E VI) is a remarkable work of art produced in Rouen in the mid-15th century. Comprising 15 texts, mostly legends and chansons de geste in French, it begins with the legendary life of Alexander the Great, known as the Roman d’Alexandre en prose.

A landscape with a castle and a city, a stream and waterwheels in the foreground.  In the city, a king and courtiers are shown in a throne room; a windmill on a hill and starry sky in the background.

Nectanebus enthroned in his palace at Babylon, with the ‘chastel du chaire (Cairo)’, the ‘jardin du baulme’, and waterwheels on the stream: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 4v

The glorious frontispiece of this manuscript shows the Egyptian pharoah, Nectanebo, enthroned in his magnificent palace in the midst of the fairy-tale landscape of Babylon. This the first of 82 miniatures illustrating the life of Alexander the Great. The border contains the arms of Margaret of Anjou, the future wife of King Henry VI of England, and the arms of John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, who presented this manuscript to her.

According to legend, Nectanebo seduced Alexander’s mother, Olympias, taking the form of the god Ammon while her husband Philip was away.

A naked man and woman embrace in a bed with a canopy; a dragon stands at the foot of the bed, watching

Nectanebo and Olympias lying naked in bed, watched by a dragon, which represents Nectanebo in disguise: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 6r

Alexander’s father, Philip II of Macedon, appointed as his tutor the famous scientist and philosopher, Aristotle, who instructed him on topics ranging from astrology and alchemy to statecraft and ethics. They then corresponded while Alexander was on his travels.

A king and a young boy present books to a seated scholar with an open book; two courtiers stand behind the king

Philip taking the young Alexander to Aristotle: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 6v

As a young man, Alexander formed a bond with an extraordinary stallion who was to accompany him to the ends of the world. Bucephalus, whose name means ‘ox-horned’, was so violent that he was locked in a cage, but he recognised his true master in Alexander, who was immediately able to subdue him.

A young man talks to a horse lying in a cage; he leads the horse and kneels before an enthroned king, who holds out his hand

Alexander tames Bucephalus, and is granted ownership of the proud stallion by his father, Philip: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 7r

Alexander was crowned King of Macedon in 336 BC after the assassination of his father. He immediately set off on his journey of conquest across Asia.

A king seated on a throne in ermine robes holds and orb and is crowned by two bishops; he is surrounded by courtiers in  a palace.

The coronation of Alexander by two bishops: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 7v

Three sailing ships at sea with Alexander and his army aboard; an army of knights led by a king (Alexander) and a trumpeter ride out from a city

Alexander's army marching and  at sea: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 9r

In time, Alexander founded more than 20 cities which took his name, including Alexandria in Egypt.

A king (Alexander) instructs men who are cutting stones and building a city with towers

Alexander at the building of Alexandria: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 9v

He defeated King Darius of Persia, taking control of this vast empire and, according to some accounts, marrying his daughter, Roxana.

A battle between two armies of knights with standards and trumpets; bodies lie on the ground A crowned king and queen are seated together in a palace holding hands

The battle with Darius and Alexander’s marriage to Roxana: Royal MS 15 E VI, ff. 12r, 13v

Alexander marched on to India, defeating the ruler, Porus, and exploring the far reaches of this wonderful region. According to the legends, there he met the famous female warriors, the Amazons, besides battling flying dragons and beasts and encountering many strange creatures and peoples.

An army of men and women on horseback meet; knights on horseback with spears, led by a king (Alexander) confront flying dragons (above) and three crab-like creatures (below)

The Queen of the Amazons meeting Alexander; Alexander battling flying dragons and beasts; Alexander and crab-like creatures: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 15v

As Alexander’s power increased, he became obsessed with his own mortality, seeking comfort from various oracles. In a frequently illustrated episode, he was taken to a sanctuary of the Sun and the Moon, where two trees, one male (Sun) and the other female (Moon), prophesied his death in Babylon.

Alexander with others behind, kneels before a figure in robes, who is talking to him; behind are two trees, one with a sun and one with a moon among the branches; a large bird perches in a leafless tree between them

Alexander and the soothsayer at the trees of the Sun and Moon: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 18v

Determined to explore the outer reaches of the world, Alexander used griffins to ascend into the skies and a diving bell to explore the depths of the ocean.

Four griffins lift a wooden cage with Alexander seated inside into a starry sky, while people watch from a landscape below.  Two figures in a boat with flags lower a barrel containing Alexander on chains into the sea, with large fish swimming about

Alexander’s flight with griffins, and his submarine adventure: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 20v

Alexander on a white horse, meets people with faces in their chests and horse-like creatures (left); a white horse is buried in a tomb outside a city; Alexander and elephants are present; Alexander stands before two sick people with birds perched on their beds; Alexander on a white horse meets a man with beasts and a dragon

Alexander meets blemmyae and horse-like creatures; the burial of Bucephalus; Alexander sees caladrius birds with sick people; a two-headed serpent, elephants and other beasts: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 21v

Having arrived at the ocean, Alexander’s men were exhausted. They turned towards home, finally reaching the city of Babylon, where they were presented with an ill omen, a child with the legs of a wild beast, which foretold Alexander’s death.  According to legend, he was given a poisoned drink at a banquet.

Having bid farewell to his men, who filed past his deathbed, Alexander died shortly afterwards and was buried in a golden sarcophagus, whose whereabouts remain unknown to this day.

Alexander and a queen are seated at a table laid with a feast and a figure kneels, presenting a goblet  Alexander is ill in bed with a man in attendance; two figures place his body in a coffin in a room; outside a king and other figures talk (right)

Alexander is served a poisoned drink at a feast in Babylon: his death and burial: Royal MS 15 E VI, ff. 22v, 23v

In the battle over Alexander’s succession, his mother Olympias was captured by Cassander, who seized the crown by having Alexander’s son murdered. Olympias was cruelly put to death, denied burial and her body left out to be devoured by dogs and birds, as described and illustrated on the final page of the Alexander legend in this manuscript.

Outside a city, two dogs bite a woman’s head which is severed from her body, and another bites her neck, with blood spurting rom it; a man enters the city gate

The death of Olympias, with her corpse eaten by dogs: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 24v

The Talbot Shrewsbury Book can be seen in our Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth exhibition until 19 February 2023.

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards the exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors.

 

Chantry Westwell

Follow us on Twitter at @BLMedieval

13 February 2023

Magic fountains and peacocks

One of the star objects in our current exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, is perhaps the most famous of all western manuscripts of the French Alexander Romance. Known as Bodley MS 264 from the collections of the Bodleian Libraries in Oxford, this is a large volume, packed with stories and pictures. Particularly famous for its magnificent cycle of illustrations, this manuscript also contains the most complete version of the Roman d’Alexandre, a rich catalogue of Alexander’s adventures on his journeys of conquest and exploration.

In one episode from the Roman d’Alexandre, the Greeks pass through a land with three wondrous springs that, in turn, restore lost youth, confer immortality and bring the dead back to life. Much to his annoyance, Alexander is unable to bathe in the second spring and achieve immortality because Enoch, one of his companions, finds it first. As punishment for using up the spring’s power, Alexander has Enoch imprisoned in a stone pillar until the end of time.

Four miniatures. Top left: the king and 4 others gathered around a table. Top right: a city being attacked. Bottom left: And army. Bottom right: A women in a tower

One of nine full-page miniatures of Alexander’s adventures, including the episode of the three magic springs on the lower right(Tournai, Flanders, 1344): The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, Bodley MS 264, f. 67v

In addition to the myriad stories in the Roman d’Alexandre itself, further accounts of Alexander’s exploits, taken from the most diverse sources, are interpolated into the main text of this manuscript, and a sequel added. Here follows a list of the additional material.

Fuerre de Gadres ('The Foray of Gadres')

In this episode, a small troop of Greek soldiers steal cattle to feed the troops besieging Tyre. They are attacked by a superior force and fight valiantly until Alexander rescues them.

Three scenes. Top: Alexander, crowned and dressed in gold, orders his army towards the knights opposite; (middle) a battle scene, knights on horseback; (bottom) Alexander receiving a message that his men are in trouble

Three scenes in Fuerre de Gadres: (1) Alexander sends out his troops; (2) a battle at Tyre; (3) Alexander hears that his men are in trouble: Bodley MS 264, f. 21v

Prise de Defur ('The Capture of Defur')

In this chivalric exploit, Alexander answers a call for help by the knight, Gratien. He slays the evil Duke of Melcis and captures his city of Defur.

Four miniatures. Top left: men on horseback talking. Top right: men on foot talking in front of a city. Bottom left: two armoured knights jousting. Bottom right: two mounted knights, the left hand knight has had his helmet knocked off.

In the Prise de Defur, Alexander meets Gratien, before he defeating the Duke of Melcis in a tournament: Bodley MS 264, f. 101v

Voeux du paon ('The Vows of the Peacock')

A series of vows are taken over a peacock that is served at a banquet attended by Alexander. Nine knights vow to perform deeds of valour, and three maidens vow to find husbands of Alexander’s choice. The deeds are accomplished and the story ends with a celebration of the marriages.

Seven figures on a gold background. The figures are behind a dining table with a white cloth on it. There are 4 women, 3 men. The central figure wears a crown

Alexander at the banquet in the Voeux du Paon: Bodley MS 264, f. 163v

Le Restor du Paon

A continuation of the Voeux du Paon legend, in which a further vow to re-make the peacock in gold is taken, and a debate is held on the merits of the vows.

Manuscript page featuring a miniature in the top right. It shows four people gathered around a golden peacock which is perched atop a tall pillar

Two knights and two maidens with the golden peacock: Bodley MS 264, f. 182r

Voyage au Paradis terrestre ('The Journey to Paradise')

This episode is on display in our exhibition. Alexander journeys to the gates of Paradise but is forbidden entry despite his show of strength.

Five men, one carrying a raised sword, gather in front of a city

Alexander’s men at the gates of Paradise: Bodley MS 264, f. 186r

Vengeance Alexandre ('The Avenging of Alexander')

In this sequel to the Romance, Alexander’s son Alior plots his revenge on those responsible for his father’s death. Alior and Candace, his mother, destroy the supporters of the treacherous Antipater (who had poisoned Alexander) and his son.

Four miniature. Top left: people listening to a king speak. Top right: two figures approach a city. Bottom left: 7 men stand in a group. Bottom right: people listen to a king speak

Alexander’s family and companions plan their revenge after his death: Bodley MS 264, f. 196v

Also transmitted in Bodley MS 264 is a unique extract from the poem known as Alexander and Dindimus, and a copy of Marco Polo’s Voyages.

 Alexander and Didymus

A fragmentary alliterative poem in Middle English consisting of five letters between Alexander and Dindimus, King of the Gymnophysists, in which they discuss their ways of life. Alexander's excessive pride in worldly deeds is shown to be misguided.

Miniature showing two men, naked, each seated in a cave. The left hand figure wears a crown

Alexander and Didymus, seated naked in caves, discuss philosophy: Bodley MS 264, f.  211r

 

Marco Polo, Voyages

Busy City scene. Ships and swans are on the water

Marco Polo in the land of the Great Khan: Bodley MS 264, f. 218r

Don’t miss this fascinating manuscript in Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, on display at the British Library until 19 February 2023.   

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards the exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors.

 

Chantry Westwell

Follow us on Twitter at @BLMedieval

12 February 2023

Mermaids, sirens and Alexander the Great

What's the difference between a mermaid and a siren? This isn't a trick question, but a conundrum that can occur when describing certain mythical creatures. Sirens are usually deadly creatures associated with enchanting melodies, whereas mermaids or merpeople are not threatening on the whole. Ariel, in the Disney animated film, The Little Mermaid (1989), based on the classic fairy-tale by Hans Christian Andersen, is not a harmful creature, but a young mermaid who wishes to become human and join our world above water.

Sirens, on the other hand, have different intentions. One of the oldest legends of sirens comes from ancient Greek mythology. In Book XII of Homer’s Odyssey, Circe warned Odysseus of the sirens he would encounter on his sea journey back to Ithaca. Odysseus followed Circe's advice and managed to resist the sirens' charms by plugging his sailors’ ears with beeswax. But Odysseus still wished to hear the sirens’ beautiful melody, and so he tied himself to the ship's mast to stop himself being lured by the sirens and turning off course into their shallow, rocky waters.

Two sirens attacking the sleeping crew of a ship. One siren is half-human, half-fish whilst the other siren is half-human, half-bird.

Two sirens attacking the sleeping crew of the ship, in the Queen Mary Psalter (England, 1310–1320): Royal MS 2 B VII, f. 97r

Sirens and mermaids also appear in legends about Alexander the Great. The fantastical elements of Alexander’s life stemmed from the tradition of the Greek Alexander Romance attributed to Pseudo-Callisthenes, translated and re-worked into many different languages during the Middle Ages. According to these popular legends, during his conquest Alexander and his soldiers came across a river full of reeds, where they discovered beautiful women with long hair down to their ankles. Unfortunately, the Macedonian conqueror soon discovered that these women were not as friendly as they first seemed, since they dragged some of his soldiers underwater, embracing them until they drowned, as illustrated in this French version of the Alexander Romance.

Alexander encountering naked women living in water. Depicted amongst the reeds is a woman pulling a man on top of her in an embrace.

Alexander encountering women living in the water (Southern Netherlands, c. 1290–1300): Harley MS 4979, f. 68r

A similar episode appears in our Alexander exhibition in a manuscript on loan from the National Library of Wales, preserving a version of the Historia de preliis in which Alexander’s soldiers managed to capture two sirens above water.

Alexander’s soldiers capture naked women with long hair by the river.

Alexander’s men encountering the sirens (England, 15th century) Aberystwyth, Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru, Peniarth MS 481D, f. 90r

In some versions of the legends, Alexander and his soldiers also encountered a population of merpeople, naked humans who lived permanently in the sea, but were not violent or harmful to Alexander and his soldiers.

Three naked people stand in a river among reeds. Alexander and his soldiers observe from their riverbanks on horseback.

Miniature of Alexander encountering men and women living in the water (Rouen, c. 1445): Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 20r

The similar appearances and habitats of sirens and merpeople can make it tricky for adventurers to discern whether water-living humans are friend or foe. At one point during his ascent of Mount Purgatory, Dante Alighieri’s protagonist of the Divina Commedia is lured by a siren in a dream; it does not have a hybrid body, but appears as a beautiful woman, fully human, and singing. The poet describes how the woman’s decaying features turn beautiful as the pilgrim gazes upon her, and she starts to sing her melody. Fortunately, Dante is saved from the siren’s charm by Beatrice, who rips the siren’s clothes to reveal a horrible stench from her body, breaking her captivating spell.

Dante asleep, with the naked siren standing next to him. Dante appears again standing to the right of the siren and next to Beatrice. An angel dressed in green flies above them.

Dante’s encounter with the two Slothful and the Siren (Tuscany, c. 1444–1450): Yates Thompson MS 36, f. 98v

As we have seen, sirens have encompassed various forms. Classical tradition depicts them as part-woman and part-bird. During the Middle Ages, they also start to adopt a fish-like hybridity due to their association with water, or sometimes they have no obvious animal qualities like the sirens of the Alexander legends and the Commedia.

In bestiaries, sirens often appear accompanied by an illustration portraying their deceptive behaviour. In the example below, a siren is depicted alongside another hybrid creature, namely a centaur. In this illustration, one of the sailors plugs his ear in a similar manner to the sailors in the Odyssey, to block out the sound of the siren’s charm. Sadly, it's too late for his shipmate, who is already being pulled by his hair into the sea, entranced by the siren's beauty and her melody.

A siren, depicted as a woman with a fish tail, pulls a sailor from a boat. Another sailor stops his ears to avoid hearing the siren's song. A centaur holds a bow on the lower right.

Miniature of a siren pulling a sailor from a boat, next to a centaur (Northern France, 2nd or 3rd quarter of the 13th century): Sloane MS 278, f. 47r

Mermaids and sirens also frequently appear in the margins of Psalters as symbols of temptation. In the Luttrell Psalter a siren holds a mirror and a comb, perhaps as a warning against the lure of vanity and luxury.

Bas-de-page scene of a mermaid with a mirror and comb and a traveller being bitten by a dog.

Detail of a bas-de-page scene of a mermaid (England, 1325–1340): Add MS 42130, f. 70v

Our major exhibition Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth is at the British Library until 19 February 2023. Tickets can be bought in advance or on the day, subject to availability, and you can explore more on our Alexander the Great website.

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards the exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors.

 

Giulia Gilmore

Follow us on Twitter @BLMedieval

05 February 2023

Magnificent margins in the Alexander Romance

One of the greatest achievements of medieval manuscript illumination, as well as one of the highlights of the British Library’s current exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, is the Bodleian Library's MS Bodley 264. Completed in Tournai (modern-day Belgium) in 1344, it contains the fullest version of the interpolated Old French Roman d'Alexandre, with some of the most vivid illustrations in any medieval romance. Perhaps most well-known are the border illustrations, remarkable for their panorama of medieval society and fantastic imagination.

Four miniatures. The top two both show armies on horseback. The lower left shows an army on horseback. The lower right shows a city under attack

Alexander’s campaigns against Darius, with musicians, jongleurs and archers in the upper and lower borders (Tournai, Flanders, 1344): The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, MS Bodley 264, f. 51v

Manuscript page. Two miniature. Left: a group of people holding hands in a circle. Right: six people standing in conversation, the central figure has a golden bird perched on his forearm

Alexander’s companions dance and make merry, with musical notation; in the lower border figures in chivalric dress with animal heads dance a carole with maidens: MS Bodley 264, f. 181v

Sometimes the subjects in the borders mirror the action in the Alexander stories, but mostly there is little or no connection.  The subjects vary from medieval sports and games to daily activities like cooking and bathing, to sport and entertainment.

Left: a couple kiss. Right: a couple sit with a box between them

Romantic interludes in the border: MS Bodley 264, f. 76v

Miniature showing men in armour being eaten by sea monsters

Alexander’s army is attacked by ‘ypopatamos’; beneath, a dog chases a stag and people watch a puppet show remarkably like Punch and Judy: MS Bodley 264, f. 54v

Two children walking on wooden stilts

Children walking on stilts: MS Bodley 264, f. 65r

A man plays on a drum. A stag stands before him. Right: a woman gestures towards to children

A youth with a pipe and a drum plays to a pantomime stag with pointed slippers on its hind feet; a mother calls two children to watch: MS Bodley 264, f. 70r

Left: blind men holding each others shoulders as they are led by a child. Right: the blind men have clubs, one has been hit on the head by another while the wild boar remains unharmed

Blind men being led to a yard, where they try to kill a pig with clubs: MS Bodley 264, f. 74v

Nude figure walk towards a changing hut. Right: a servant carries water to a bathing tub in which two people are sat

Bathing: MS Bodley 264, f. 75r

left: a horse-drawn card with barrels and shields in it. right: a large pot over a fire, two men roast meat above the fire

A horse-drawn cart and roasting carcasses on an open fire: MS Bodley 264, f. 83v

Many of the border images are wildly improbable and difficult to categorise. We leave the following to our readers to interpret.

left: nude figures carry a spear and approach a target. Right: a man bed over with robes raised. A woman kneels a short distance away from him and shields her eyes from the view using her hands

Border image: MS Bodley 264, f. 56r

A furry, horned beast is seated in a chair. The chair is being pulled, using ropes, by a man towards a castle

Border image: MS Bodley 264, f. 68r

left: a man holds a stick for a dog. Right: a king on hoseback charges at a stag. The stag has a maiden seated on his back. Behind the maiden a furry and bearded human figure is seated, he is raising a club towards the horserider

Border image: MS Bodley 264, f. 69v

Two bearded figure riding donkeys.

Border image: MS Bodley 264, f. 72v

left: a man carries a drum while two men hold open the kings cloak. Right; two men carry a pole between them, Another follows with a nude figure carried over his shoulder

Border image: MS Bodley 264, f. 74r

Lastly, there are the ever-popular vengeful rabbits.

Manuscript page. Miniature showing soldiers with raised swords fighting winged beasts. Marginalia showing rabbits, or hares, with weopans attacking humans

Alexander and his army fighting griffins; in the lower border, rabbits wreak revenge on humans: MS Bodley 264, f. 81v

You can see this manuscript for yourself in our Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth exhibition, until 19 February 2023. Tickets can be purchased in advance online or on the door (subject to availability).

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards the exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors.

 

Chantry Westwell

Follow us on Twitter @BLMedieval

31 January 2023

Alexander the Great versus the elephants

Have you ever wondered how to defeat an army or a herd of wild elephants? Alexander the Great knew how, to judge by accounts (both historical and legendary) of his campaigns in the East. Elephants feature most prominently in Alexander's famous battle with King Porus of Inda in 326BC, as described by Plutarch, Arian and the later Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus. Curtius’ Historia was translated into French, and illuminated copies were produced in considerable numbers in the 15th century, notably for Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1467–1477), who modelled himself on Alexander.

Soldiers in armour with spears confront elephants with castles containing soldiers with arrows on their backs.  A castle in the background.

A battle between Alexander and Porus with elephants, in Quintus Curtius Rufus. Historia Alexandri magni, translated by Lucena: Burney MS 169, f. 165v

Curtius describes how Alexander and his men faced a terrifying force of 300 chariots, 30,000 foot soldiers and 85 elephants with castles on their backs, on the opposite bank of the river Hyaspedes. King Porus himself was mounted on a huge elephant that towered above the rest, decorated with silver and gold armour. Fortunately, Alexander and his troops were already familiar with these terrifying creatures, as he had earlier been presented with 56 elephants by King Omphis of Taxila.

Using his characteristic strategic genius, Alexander sent troops to cross the river further down in order to surprise his opponents. By attacking on two fronts, he restricted the elephants’ room to manoeuvre. Alexander’s great victory over Porus soon became the stuff of legend. The French Roman d’Alexandre en prose tells that he employed ‘ymages de laiton’ (bronze models of soldiers) filled with red hot coals, which he placed in iron chariots and sent in among the elephants. When they saw the burning embers and felt the scorching heat, the elephants fled in terror. A manuscript made in Bruges manuscript illustrates the burning soldiers in chariots facing the elephants.  

Two groups of soldiers on horseback with spears raised ride towards each other, model soldiers on fire standing on chariots, and elephants with towers and soldiers on their backs

The battle between Alexander and King Porus, with the elephants and bronze model soldiers filled with hot coals, in the Roman d’Alexandre en prose: Harley MS 4979, f. 51r

Legend has it that after another battle, a short period of friendship ensued, during which Porus took Alexander to see the wonders of India. But the truce was short-lived and Alexander finally killed Porus in single combat. Determined to continue his journey of conquest as far as the ocean, he encountered many strange and dangerous creatures, including a herd of ferocious elephants. The cunning Alexander, aware that elephants were afraid of the sound of squealing of pigs, sent into their midst a troop of horsemen, trumpeters and all the pigs he could find. The elephants fled in terror, pursued by the horsemen, who killed 980 of them and brought back their ‘teeth and horns’. This story is illustrated in a manuscript of the Roman d’Alexandre en prose made in Paris around 1425, perhaps for a young owner, as it has startling, colourful images on almost every page.

Alexander and his army with trumpets and pigs with tusks facing elephants with trumpet-shaped trunks.

Alexander’s army with trumpets and pigs confronting the wild elephants, in the Roman d’Alexandre en prose: Royal MS 20 B XX  f. 57r

Alexander’s life story was incorporated into world histories such as the Histoire ancienne jusqu’à César, which encompassed all of human history from Creation to the reign of Julius Caesar. In this version of the Alexander legend, Porus and Alexander were exploring the far reaches of India when they made camp for the night near a forest, before finding that it was infested with fierce elephants. Porus told Alexander not to worry. He should gather together some ‘truie’ (sows), upset them so that they squealed loudly at the elephants, who would immediately flee in terror, fearing this noise more than anything.

Above, soldiers on horseback with helmets and swords and pigs beside them attack elephants

Alexander fighting with pigs against elephants (above), and meeting the talking trees of the Sun and the Moon and their Indian guardian (below), in the Histoire ancienne jusqu’à César (Northern France, 2nd half of the 13th century): Add MS 19699, f. 156r

Alexander on a horse with soldiers holding spears, chase pigs towards four elephants among trees

Alexander’s army with wild pigs confronting elephants in a forest, in the Histoire ancienne jusqu’à César (Paris, late 14th century): Royal MS 16 G VII, f. 133v

In a luxurious copy of the prose Roman d’Alexandre made for Margaret of Anjou (1429–1482), future queen of England, Alexander and his soldiers are shown attacking a group of elephants with spears; the pigs mentioned in the accompanying text are nowhere to be seen.

Alexander in armour with knights on horseback, use spears to wound two elephants standing among trees.  A starry sky.

Alexander’s army fighting elephants, in the Roman d’Alexandre en prose: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 16v

This story must have circulated widely in England. In one manuscript of the Festial by John Mirk of Shropshire (1382–1414), the homily for the feast of the Nativity of John the Baptist describes how bones and wood are used in making St John’s fire (Harley MS 2417, f. 42r). Mirk then adds a long digression on the origins of fire in ‘that countrey of grete hete’ where dragons breathe noxious gases and poison the water. This leads to a description of Alixander’s campaign in India:

...mony grete clerkes that hadden red of kyng Alysaunder how when he shulde have a batel wyth the kyng of Ynde and the kyng of Ynde browyte wyth hym mony olyfauntes beryng castels of tre (wood) on her bakkes.... Thene knewe alysau]nder the kynde (species) of olyfauntes that they dreden noo thyng moore the ȝarryng (squealing) of swyyn (swine). Therfor he made togedere all the sowes that myghte be geten and made to dryve hem so nygh the olifantes ...anoon they maden suche a ȝarryng all yfer that alle the olyfauntes flowen (fled) and casten down her castelles...

The subject then turns to dragons once again, and how they hate the stench of burning bones, so that a ‘boon fyr’ (the origin of the word, bonfire) could be used to chase them away.

Discover more about Alexander the Great by visiting the British Library's exhibition Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, open until 19 February 2023, or explore more online at bl.uk/alexander-the-great

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards this exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors.

 

Chantry Westwell

Follow us on Twitter @BLMedieval

28 January 2023

Three Alexander the Great manuscripts newly digitised

Our current exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth (closing soon on 19 February!), displays striking images of Alexander in medieval manuscripts of his legendary life. Many of these are already fully digitised, including high-status works of art like the Talbot-Shrewsbury Book and other superbly-illustrated Alexander legends in the British Library's collections.

miniature showing knight wearing armour and a crown on horseback fighting charge at three small dragons. The knight carries a spear

Alexander fighting dragons, in the Talbot-Shrewsbury Book (Rouen 1444–1445): Royal 15 E VI, f, 21r

Left. A man seated, wearing blue robes and a black hat, a young child holding a school book stands before him

Alexander taught by Aristotle in the schoolroom, in Le livre et la vraye hystoire du bon roy Alixandre (Paris, c. 1420–c. 1425): Royal MS 20 B XX, f. 10v

Manuscript page featuring two miniatues. The top one shows a knight on horseback charging at a group of 6 winged dragons. The lower image shows the same knight on the same horse but this time charging at a herd of several boar like monsters

Alexander fighting dragons and monsters, in Roman d'Alexandre in prose (Southern Netherlands, 1st quarter of the 14th century): Harley MS 4979, f. 67v

In preparation for the exhibition, we have digitised three more of our illustrated Alexander manuscripts, so that, in addition to the pages on display in the exhibition, all the images and accompanying text can be viewed online. One of the newly-digitised items is an early collection of Latin works; the others are French versions of Alexander’s life story, as told by the Roman historian, Quintus Curtius Rufus.

Royal MS 13 A I: an Alexander collection from 11th-century England

This small book preserves four early Latin texts relating to Alexander the Great, including Julius Valerius’s Historia Alexandri Magni, translated from the Greek, together with fictional correspondence between Alexander and his teacher, Aristotle, and with the Indian Brahmin, Dindimus. The only illustration, on the opening page, is an early drawing of the coronation of Alexander by the personified figure of Philosophy.

Two figure robed in green. The left figure is femal and standing. She is anointing the seated figure on the right. The seated figure is male. He wears a crown and holds and orb and septre

Alexander is anointed by the female personification of Philosophy (England, 4th quarter of the 11th century): Royal MS 13 A I, f. 1v

Two manuscripts of the Livre des Fais d’Alexandre le Grant: in the 15th century, the Portuguese humanist scholar Vasco da Lucena compiled his account in French of Alexander’s life (largely a translation of the Historia Alexandri Magni of the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus), which he dedicated to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1467–1477). The majority of the illustrations accompanying his work focus on violent confrontations between Alexander and his enemies, in particular his defeat of Darius, his capture and subjugation of cities on his route, and his brutality towards suspected traitors.

Royal MS 17 F I: a manuscript of the Lucena translation from Lille and Bruges

This copy of Lucena’s Livre des Fais was made by Jean Duchesne of Lille and illustrated in Bruges in the 1470s. It has 9 large miniatures with decorated borders and 11 smaller images within the text.

Royal_ms_17_f_i_f055r

The capture of the family of Darius; the five figures in a pavilion in the background represent his mother, wife, two daughters and son; Alexander is in the foreground in gold armour on a black horse, pursuing the Persians, in Livre des Fais d’Alexandre le Grant: Royal MS 17 F I, f. 55r

A knight in armour riding a heron

Detail of a border in Royal MS 17 F I, f. 40r

The Battle of Arbela (or Gaugamela); Alexander stands before his army outside the city and the citizens bring gifts; on the other side of the river is Darius in his carriage; the two rivers are perhaps the Tigris and Euphrates, named in the rubric below: Royal MS 17 F I, f. 96r

Manuscript page featuring a depiction of a city under siege

The Battle of Arbela (or Gaugamela); Alexander stands before his army outside the city and the citizens bring gifts; on the other side of the river is Darius in his carriage; the two rivers are perhaps the Tigris and Euphrates, named in the rubric below: Royal MS 17 F I, f. 96r

Royal MS 20 C III: the Lucena translation in another copy from Bruges

Curtius’s history of Alexander in French translation gained popularity among the 15th-century French-speaking nobility. A number of illustrated copies were produced in commercial ateliers to satisfy demand. The opening miniature in this large book produced in Bruges in the 1480s imagines Alexander’s birth in a truly imperial setting, with the furnishing, fabrics and luxurious garments reflecting the style of the magnificent court of the dukes of Burgundy at the time.

Scene showing a woman in bed, she has just given birth. She is being attended by a group of women. In the foreground two women take care of the baby. The the background a building is on fire

The birth of Alexander, with two golden eagles perched on the palace roof and the Temple of Artemis burning in the background as signs of future greatness, in Livre des Fais d’Alexandre le Grant (Bruges, c. 1485–1490): Royal MS 20 C III, f. 15r

The exquisitely-painted trompe-l’oeil borders, with realistic birds, flowers and fruit, contrast with the rather violent subject matter of some of the images.

Scene showing a city in the background. In the foreground people from the city are surrendering to an advancing army
The people of the fortress of Celaenae surrender to Alexander and his army: Royal MS 20 C III, f. 42r

Manuscript page. Miniature in top right hand side showing a crowd watching as two men are being beheaded by a figure swinging a sword
Cleander and other traitors are beheaded:Royal MS 20 C III, f. 238r

Come and see these beautiful manuscripts as well as many others in Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, open until 19 February 2023 at the British Library, or explore more on our Alexander the Great website.

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards the exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors

 

Chantry Westwell

Follow us on Twitter @BLMedieval

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