Medieval manuscripts blog: Medieval

03 March 2023

Bringing the Cotton fragments to life

One of the most catastrophic episodes in modern library history was the Ashburnham House fire. On the night of 29 October 1731, a fire took hold below the room which held the famous Cotton collection, containing many of the most iconic historical and literary treasures from early times, among them Magna Carta, Beowulf and the Lindisfarne Gospels. Some of these items escaped the flames intact, others were singed or damaged by the water used to douse the fire, while many hundreds were burned significantly or completely destroyed. The fire-damaged survivors are held today at the British Library, but many of them remain extraordinarily difficult to handle or are too blackened to be read with the naked eye.

One of the burnt pages from a 10th-century Irish Psalter: Cotton MS Vitellius F XI, f. 1v

But help is now at hand. Thanks to the incredible generosity of the Goldhammer Foundation, since 2020 the Library has been engaged in a project to bring some of the fragmentary Cotton remains to life. We have used multispectral imaging to photograph a selection of the damaged items, and our conservation team has employed new techniques to re-house some of the most vulnerable fragments and to improve the handling of the bound volumes.

Over the coming months, we will feature on this Medieval Manuscripts Blog stories about the most recent restoration of the burnt Cotton manuscripts, but here is a sample to whet your appetite. In due course, the items themselves will be available to view online in all their glory. The Cotton fire may have had tragic consequences, but there is potentially some light at the end of the tunnel.

Cotton MS Fragments I is a 12th-century manuscript containing a compilation of historical, geographical and other texts, made at Saint-Bertin. This work has been shown to be closely related to the Liber Floridus (‘Book of Flowers'), an important medieval encyclopedia made by Lambert, canon of Saint-Omer, between 1090 and 1100. Among its many texts, the manuscript notably contains an early plan of the city of Jerusalem, near impossible to discern in its current burnt state, but which can now be seen again in the new multispectral images.

A plan of the city of Jerusalem, revealed under multispectral imaging: Cotton MS Fragments I, f. 19r

In the 19th century, many of the fire-damaged Cotton manuscripts underwent intensive restoration, led principally by the efforts of Sir Frederic Madden, Keeper of Manuscripts at the British Museum. During this process, their folios were often remounted and reorganised. However, some of the smallest and most fragile of the burnt fragments could not be reunited with their original volumes and were instead housed separately in nine small boxes, now known as Cotton MS Fragments XXXII. One focus of this project has been the imaging and preservation of these tiny fragments, some measuring as little as a few millimetres in diameter.

A fragment of a burnt Old English manuscript: Cotton MS Fragments XXXII/3, Fragment 1r

A burnt fragment from the Cotton collection: Cotton MS Fragments XXXII/2, Fragment 1r

Our project also includes a number of illuminated manuscripts. Particularly notable is an early Gallican Psalter, made in Ireland during the first half of the 10th century. This Psalter was so badly damaged in the 1731 fire that the 1802 catalogue of the Cotton manuscripts stated that it was ‘desideratur’ (destroyed). The Psalter was subsequently rediscovered by Madden, who remounted and reorganised its pages.

An illustration of David and Goliath from an early 10th-century Irish Psalter, revealed under multispectral imaging: Cotton MS Vitellius F XI, f. 1r

The Psalter features two full-page illustrations, now placed at the beginning of the volume, which depict David killing Goliath (f. 1r) and David enthroned, playing a harp (f. 2r); they were once placed at the openings of Psalms 51 and 102, facing framed initial pages. It also features numerous zoomorphic initials, made up of the bent bodies of ribbon shaped animals or distinctive panels of interlace.

The beginning of Psalm 51 from the Irish Psalter, showing a zoomorphic initial, set within a full-page frame, revealed under multispectral imaging: Cotton MS Vitellius F XI, f. 3r

We are extremely grateful to Gina Goldhammer and the Goldhammer Foundation for their generous support of the Cotton Fragments Project. We would also like to acknowledge the contributions of Dr Christina Duffy (formerly Research Imaging Scientist at the Library) and our conservation team (Gavin Moorhead, Camille Dekeyser, Gary Kelly, Francesca Whymark and Mark Oxtoby), without whom none of this could have been achieved.

Julian Harrison and Calum Cockburn

Posted by Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Manuscripts at 12:01 AM in Anglo-Saxons , Illuminated manuscripts , Ireland , Manuscripts , Medieval , Medieval history | Permalink

02 March 2023

Venusse was her name

How were royal children brought up in the Middle Ages? A manuscript newly digitised as part of our Medieval and Renaissance Women project supplies us with clues. Add MS 37656, a household account book compiled in 1305 by John de Claxton, keeper of the wardrobe, demonstrates how women were in charge of key aspects of the care of two medieval princes, Thomas of Brotherton (b. 1300, d. 1338) and Edmund of Woodstock (b. 1301, d. 1330).

The household account of Princes Thomas and Edmund: Add MS 37656, f. 1r

Thomas of Brotherton and Edmund of Woodstock, afterwards Earls of Norfolk and Kent, were the fifth and sixth sons of King Edward I (r. 1272–1307), and the first by his second marriage to Margaret of France (b. c. 1279, d. 1318). At the time when this household account was compiled, the princes were four and three years old respectively. and lived primarily in the royal residences at Ludgershall (Wiltshire), under the supervision of a governess (‘magistra’) named Lady Edelina de Venusse. Lady Edelina was in charge of the princes' upbringing, wellbeing and provisioning, and she played a key role in their education. She was in charge of administering their household, and even had a damsel at her service.

The children of Edward I in a genealogical roll (Thomas of Brotherton and Edmund of Woodstock are on the right: Royal MS 14 B VI, f. 7r

Together with Lady Edelina, another nine women are mentioned in this account. One of them is none other than Mary of Woodstock, Thomas and Edmund’s older half-sister, who was a nun at Amesbury Priory but spent significant periods of time visiting and living with her younger siblings. The other women named in this record are mostly unknown, and this account is almost certainly the only evidence of the roles they played within the royal household. Among them are three nurses or nursemaids, two women assistants, a washerwoman, and the damsel who served Lady Edelina. Here is list of all the women mentioned in the household account:

Lady Mary of Woodstock, nun of Amesbury and the sister of Thomas and Edmund.
Lady Edelina de Venusse, governess (‘magistra’) of the princes’ household.
Mabel of Raunds, Thomas’ nurse (‘nutrix’).
Perretta de Poissy, nursemaid (‘berceressa’) of Edmund.
Erembourga, nursemaid (‘berceressa’) of Thomas.
(Unnamed) damsel of Lady Edelina.
Annis of Northampton, woman assistant (‘muliere coadjuvante’).
Pernell de Boweys, woman assistant (‘muliere coadjuvante’).
Matilda, washerwoman (‘lotrix’).
A certain Joanna, who is said to be 'the daughter of Isabella'.

These women not only provided the care and upbringing of the young princes, but they were also the recipients of numerous gifts and pieces of clothing. For example, Lady Edelina, Mabel the nurse, and Erembourga and Perretta, the nursemaids received coloured cloth to make corsets for themselves. Queen Margaret also ordered gifts valued at £12 13s 4d for Edelina, Mabel and Perretta as a reward for the work they had undertaken in caring for Thomas and Edmund.

The entries recording the gifts to Edelina, Mabel and Perretta (the first paragraph of this page): Add MS 37656, f. 4v

The household account also records a series of objects and items that were bought for the royal children, providing us with a glimpse of day-to-day life during their early childhood. One of the entries records that a certain Martin the Minstrel was given 2 shillings as compensation for his services, but also for the repair of his drum, which had been broken by Thomas and Edmund, presumably when they were playing with the instrument. It is also noted that, during a time when Edmund was ill, sugar candies, apples, pears and, notably, a urinal were purchased for him. The princes also enjoyed the company of a pet ferret that was bought for them to catch rabbits.

An overhead view of Ludgershall Castle, home to the prince and their household, courtesy of English Heritage

This household account of Thomas and Edmund provides an invaluable insight into the roles played by women in the upbringing of the royal children. It also demonstrates how female care-providers could be highly regarded and amply rewarded, in the royal household at least.

We are extremely grateful to Joanna and Graham Barker for their generous funding of Medieval and Renaissance Women.

Paula Del Val Vales

Posted by Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Manuscripts at 12:01 AM in Manuscripts , Medieval , Medieval history , Royal , Women's histories | Permalink

19 February 2023

Alexander, Porrus and the peacock

The French Alexander Romance is a long and complex narrative, in which miraculous deeds and encounters at the edges of the known world are grafted onto the real journeys of conquest and exploration by the historical figure, Alexander the Great. This work was so popular in the 14th century that further imaginary exploits were invented to supplement it in various ways, as shown in our exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth. One of these ‘spin-offs’, the Voeux du Paon (Vows of the Peacock), was composed in 1312 by Jacques de Longuyon, developing the medieval character of Alexander as a courtly figure, and inventing a new set of fictional companions for him.

The roast peacock is brought to the table and vows are made, in Les Voeux du Paon (?England, c. 1390–1400): Add MS 30864, f. 1r

The action in the Voeux du Paon takes place during a short interlude in the city of Epheson (?Ephesus) on Alexander’s final journey to Babylon. Alexander meets an elderly knight, Cassamus, who asks for his help to relieve the city from a siege by the evil Clarus, king of Ind; Clarus wishes to kill the young princes of Epheson, Gadifer and Betis, and marry their sister, Lady Fesonas. During a battle outside the palace, Porrus, a young Indian prince fighting alongside Clarus, is captured and imprisoned in the Chamber of Venus at Epheson, where he is treated with courtesy by the young courtiers, joining in their games.

Porrus in the chamber of Venus with Fesonas and young companions at Epheson: Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley MS 264, f. 133v

While wandering through the palace gardens one day, Porrus mistakenly shoots Lady Fesonas’s pet peacock, but she forgives him. It is plucked, roasted and dressed, and a feast is arranged. Courtly vows are made over the peacock under the tutelage of Alexander, who is portrayed as a force for reconciliation between East and West. He organises a competition whereby the young men undertake feats of prowess and the ladies promise themselves in marriage to suitable candidates. The subsequent military and courtly exploits are described in some detail. In the course of these, the concept of the Nine Worthies, the nine greatest knights of all time, is introduced.

Alexander watches as Canans is unhorsed by Lyonies, in Les Voeux du Paon: Add MS 30864, f. 10v

Edeas, one the young courtiers, vows to reconstruct the peacock in gold (this sets the scene for an entire new Romance: the sequel known as the Restor du Paon, ‘The Peacock Restored’). Having arranged the marriages and enjoyed fifteen days of celebration, Alexander sets off for Babylon, where he is destined to die by poisoning.

Honouring the Golden Peacock (Paris, 1335–1340): Add MS 16888, f. 142r

The text of the Voeux du Paon was sometimes copied within or alongside the Alexander Romance, as is the case in a manuscript from the Bodleian Library, Oxford, Bodley MS 264. There are also numerous independent copies of the text. It has been judged the ‘most successful of all Old French Alexander poems’ by the scholar, David Ross, with over 40 manuscripts surviving from across Europe, many of them richly illustrated and owned by important collectors like the Dukes of Burgundy.

Alexander at the banquet of the Voeux du Paon: Bodley MS 264, f. 146v

In 1381 a banquet was held at the court of Aragon in Spain, where vows were taken over a peacock, while in 1454 Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, held a banquet at Lille, known as the Banquet du Faisan (Pheasant). These somewhat bizarre princely rituals involving roast poultry (albeit of the luxury variety) were probably inspired by the Alexander/Peacock legend.

Courtly pursuits in Epheson: Bodley MS 264, f. 127v

In the sequel romance Restor du Paon ('The Peacock Restored'), Edeas re-creates the peacock in gold and jewels and Alexander bestows a prize on Betis, the most worthy of the men. A second sequel, the Parfait du Paon (‘The Peacock completed’), has Alexander taking part in a literary contest by composing ballads.

Goldsmiths at work on the peacock: Bodley MS 264, f. 164v

And this was not the only ‘sequel’ to trade on the popularity of the Alexander Romance in the 14th and 15th centuries. Characters from the Peacock cycle, including Betis and Gadifer, reappear in Perceforest, a tale that supposedly takes place in pre-Arthurian Britain. Taking a detour by ship while on his journey to Babylon, Alexander is blown off course by a storm and (with a certain geographical licence) lands in the British Isles, where he founds a new dynasty and invents the medieval tournament.

A tournament in ancient Britain, in Perceforest (Bruges, c. 1500): Royal MS 19 E II, f.305r

You can learn more about the Alexander Romance on our website: bl.uk/alexander-the-great

We are indebted to the Kusuma Trust, the Patricia G. and Jonathan S. England – British Library Innovation Fund and Ubisoft for their support towards the exhibition, as well as other trusts and private donors.

Chantry Westwell

Posted by Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Manuscripts at 3:12 PM in Alexander exhibition , Animals , Exhibitions , French , Manuscripts , Medieval | Permalink

17 February 2023

Alexander, a medieval super-hero

Alexander the Great is a hero who transcends time and space, as our wonderful exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, demonstrates. In the Middle Ages, he was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies (Neuf Preux), a select group of illustrious heroes who represented the pinnacle of glory, courage and military leadership. The French word preux translates into English as ‘worthies’ but it is related to prouesse, equivalent to ‘prowess’ or ‘valour’. This virtue encompasses a host of chivalric qualities that were first associated with Olivier, hero of the French national epic, the Chanson de Roland.

Alexander leading his army, in the Roman d’Alexandre (Rouen, 1445) Royal MS 15 E VI f. 9r

The Nine Worthies are divided into three groups, each containing three famous men. The first group comprises three classical or ‘pagan’ heroes, among them Alexander the Great.

Classical Heroes: Alexander, Hector of Troy and Julius Caesar

The coronation of Alexander the Great, in Le livre et le vraye histoire du bon roy Alixandre (Paris, c. 1420): Royal MS 20 B XX, f. 14r


Hector with Priam, in L'Épître Othéa (Paris, c. 1410): Harley MS 4431, f. 136	Julius Caesar leading his army, in Bellum Gallicum (Lille or Bruges, c. 1475): Royal MS 16 G VIII, f. 147v

The second group is made up of three biblical heroes from the Old Testament.

Old Testament Kings: Joshua, David and Judas Maccabeus


Joshua receiving a lance from God, in Bible moralisée (Bruges, c. 1455): Add MS 15248, f. 54v	Coronation of David, in ‘Breviary of Queen Isabella of Castile’ (Bruges, c. 1497): Add MS 18851, f. 124r	Judas Maccabeus capturing a city, in Bible Historiale (Bruges, c. 1475): Royal MS 15 D I, f. 134r

The third group consists of Christian monarchs, including more contemporary figures.

Medieval Christian monarchs: Arthur, Charlemagne and Godfrey de Bouillon, the crusader king


Arthur at Camelot, in Guiron le Courtois (Napes, c. 1360): Add MS 12228, f. 221v	Charlemagne leading his army, in the Talbot-Shrewsbury Book: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 181v	Godfrey in his palace, in Histoire de Godefroy, roy de Jerusalem (Bruges, late 15th century): Royal MS 17 F V, f. 3r

All nine exceptional characters were endowed with the attributes of a perfect medieval knight, as portrayed in these manuscript illuminations.

The earliest written description of the Nine Worthies is in Jacques de Longuyon’s Voeux du Paon, a French legend of the late 14th century linked to the Alexander Romance. Allegedly, while on a detour from Alexander’s final journey to Babylon, his young companions took the ‘Vows of the Peacock’ at a feast where roast peacock was served. By fulfilling these vows, they attempted to live up to the exceptional deeds of the nine greatest heroes of all time: ‘les ix millors qui fussent puis le commandement que Diex ot fait le ciel et la terre et le vent’ ('the nine best of all, since the sky, the earth and the wind were created by God’s commandment').

The roast peacock is brought to the table and vows are made, in Les Voeux du Paon (?England, c. 1390–1400): Add MS 30864, f. 1r

The deeds of each hero are listed, including those of Alexander, who is praised for his victories and conquests.

Apres fu Alixandres preus merveilleusement

Il vainqui Nicholas et Dairon le persant

Et occist la vermine des desers d’Oriant

Il saisi Babyloine la fort cite plaisant

Ou il morut apres par empoisounement

En xii an il conquist tres viguereusement

Quanques on puet conquerre desous le firmament

'Then there was Alexander, marvellously valiant

He defeated Nicholas and Darius the Persian

And killed the vermin of the deserts of the Orient

And captured Babylon, that most pleasant city

Where he died afterwards by poisoning

In 12 years he strenuously conquered

As much as can be conquered under heaven.'

(Transcription based on Bodleian Library, Bodley MS 264 and Paul Meyer ‘Les Neuf Preux’ (1883); my translation.)

Alexander and his army crossing a frozen river in Persia, in Des faiz du grant Alexandre (Bruges, c. 1475): Royal MS 15 D IV, f. 101v

During the 15th and 16th centuries, the concept of the Nine Worthies spread throughout Europe. Tapestries were made for Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and the Duc de Berry, and pageants and parades on this theme were staged to mark important occasions. Panel paintings, medallions and engravings survive, and coats of arms were attributed to each of the heroes.

The arms of the Nine Worthies (late 15th century): Harley MS 2169, f. 5v

Later, nine ‘most illustrious ladies’ were chosen to be placed alongside the famous men. One of these, Penthesilea of the Amazons, is reported to have met Alexander. (You can read more about them in our blogpost on the Nine Worthy Women.)

Queen Penthesilea and the Amazons surrendering to Alexander the Great, in Histoire universelle (Acre, late 13th century): Add MS 15268, f. 203r

You can see this depiction of Queen Penthesilea and much more in Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth. The show ends soon, on 19 February, so don't delay!

Chantry Westwell

Posted by Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Manuscripts at 12:01 AM in Alexander exhibition , Exhibitions , Manuscripts , Medieval | Permalink

16 February 2023

Knock, knock, knocking on heaven’s door

The British Library’s major exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, showcases how stories about this ancient ruler were transformed and spread across centuries, cultures and languages. Some of these legends take Alexander to the unknown realms of the world, to face fantastic beasts, amazing people and terrifying monsters. But one story takes him even further — to the gates of Paradise.

Alexander’s army at the gates of Paradise, in Voyage au paradis terrestre, interpolated in the Roman d’Alexandre (Tournai, 1344): The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, Bodley MS 264, f. 185v (detail).

Put together around AD 500 by the most eminent Jewish scholars of the time, the Babylonian Talmud is the most important source of rabbinic code in Judaism. It collects the replies and statements of prominent Jewish rabbis about various issues and questions. One of these (Tractate Tamid 32b) records the following story.

In the course of his adventures in the mythical East, Alexander reached the entrance of the Garden of Eden and raised a loud voice, calling out: “Open the gate for me!” The sentry of the Garden of Eden said to him: “This is the gate of the Lord; the righteous shall enter into it. Since you are not righteous, you may not enter.” He said to them: "If I will not be admitted, at least give me something from inside." They gave him one eyeball. He brought it and he weighed all the gold and silver that he had against the eyeball, and yet the riches did not balance against the eyeball’s greater weight. He said to his philosophers: "What is this? Why does this eyeball outweigh everything?" They said: "It is the eyeball of a mortal person of flesh and blood, which is not satisfied ever." He said to them: "From where do you know that this is the reason for the unbalanced scale?" The philosophers answered him: "Take a small amount of dirt and cover the eye." He did so, and it was immediately balanced by its proper counterweight. The eye is never satisfied while it can see.

The Hebrew version of Alexander’s visit to Paradise from the Talmud (Tamid 62b), Babylonian Talmud (20 volumes), Nehardea edition, published by Vagshal (Jerusalem, 1988)

This allegorical story of human greed, first recorded in the Talmud, became very popular in Jewish culture and started a life of its own, spreading even beyond Judaism. In the 12th century, it appears in an interesting Latin narrative which, according to its title, was translated from Hebrew by a certain Rabbi Salomon and spread quickly in medieval western Europe. During the translation process, the original concept of an eyeball given to Alexander was transformed into a miraculous stone that outweighed everything but, if covered with dust, was lighter than anything else. The general morale of the Hebrew story also became simple and clearer. In Alexandri Magni iter ad Paradisum (Alexander’s journey to Paradise) the philosophers simply tell Alexander, “The stone is you, your majesty”.

Turned into another gloomy premonition of Alexander’s upcoming death and the collapse of his empire, the Latin story was soon incorporated into various medieval versions of the Alexander Romance. It appears in one of the most famous medieval manuscripts of the Alexander Romance in the Bodleian Library, incorporated in the French Roman d’Alexandre, with exquisite illustrations depicting Alexander’s army in front of the gates of Paradise and the measure and assessment of the wondrous stone.

The guardian of paradise gifts the wonderstone to Alexander’s army (left); Alexander and his philosophers assess it (right): Bodley MS 264, f. 186r (detail)

Transmitted in the French Roman d’Alexandre, the story was further adapted in other prose and poetic retellings of Alexander’s legends. In the 16th-century Scots version of the Alexander Romance by Gilbert Hay, the mysterious gift Alexander receives from Paradise is transformed into a miraculous apple that changes colour and outweighs everything else, but becomes incredibly light-weighted when covered in clay. The changing colour of the apple and the shifting of its weight are both premonitions to Alexander that he should “think that þow has schorte tyme for to liff…”

Alexander receives the miraculous apple from Paradise, in tGilbert Hay, The Buike off King Allexander the Conqueroure (Scotland, 16th century): Add MS 40732, f. 228r

The incredible journey of the story of Alexander’s failed attempt to visit Paradise from 6th-century Hebrew sources through Latin adaptations and medieval vernacular legends is just one of the many legends are featured in Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth. You can visit in person until 19th February 2023 or explore more online at bl.uk/alexander-the-great.

Peter Toth

Posted by Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Manuscripts at 12:01 AM in Alexander exhibition , Exhibitions , Illuminated manuscripts , Manuscripts , Medieval | Permalink

15 February 2023

Alexander the Great: a life in pictures

The Talbot Shrewsbury Book (Royal MS 15 E VI) is a remarkable work of art produced in Rouen in the mid-15th century. Comprising 15 texts, mostly legends and chansons de geste in French, it begins with the legendary life of Alexander the Great, known as the Roman d’Alexandre en prose.

Nectanebus enthroned in his palace at Babylon, with the ‘chastel du chaire (Cairo)’, the ‘jardin du baulme’, and waterwheels on the stream: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 4v

The glorious frontispiece of this manuscript shows the Egyptian pharoah, Nectanebo, enthroned in his magnificent palace in the midst of the fairy-tale landscape of Babylon. This the first of 82 miniatures illustrating the life of Alexander the Great. The border contains the arms of Margaret of Anjou, the future wife of King Henry VI of England, and the arms of John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, who presented this manuscript to her.

According to legend, Nectanebo seduced Alexander’s mother, Olympias, taking the form of the god Ammon while her husband Philip was away.

Nectanebo and Olympias lying naked in bed, watched by a dragon, which represents Nectanebo in disguise: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 6r

Alexander’s father, Philip II of Macedon, appointed as his tutor the famous scientist and philosopher, Aristotle, who instructed him on topics ranging from astrology and alchemy to statecraft and ethics. They then corresponded while Alexander was on his travels.

Philip taking the young Alexander to Aristotle: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 6v

As a young man, Alexander formed a bond with an extraordinary stallion who was to accompany him to the ends of the world. Bucephalus, whose name means ‘ox-horned’, was so violent that he was locked in a cage, but he recognised his true master in Alexander, who was immediately able to subdue him.

Alexander tames Bucephalus, and is granted ownership of the proud stallion by his father, Philip: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 7r

Alexander was crowned King of Macedon in 336 BC after the assassination of his father. He immediately set off on his journey of conquest across Asia.

The coronation of Alexander by two bishops: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 7v

Alexander's army marching and at sea: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 9r

In time, Alexander founded more than 20 cities which took his name, including Alexandria in Egypt.

Alexander at the building of Alexandria: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 9v

He defeated King Darius of Persia, taking control of this vast empire and, according to some accounts, marrying his daughter, Roxana.

The battle with Darius and Alexander’s marriage to Roxana: Royal MS 15 E VI, ff. 12r, 13v

Alexander marched on to India, defeating the ruler, Porus, and exploring the far reaches of this wonderful region. According to the legends, there he met the famous female warriors, the Amazons, besides battling flying dragons and beasts and encountering many strange creatures and peoples.

The Queen of the Amazons meeting Alexander; Alexander battling flying dragons and beasts; Alexander and crab-like creatures: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 15v

As Alexander’s power increased, he became obsessed with his own mortality, seeking comfort from various oracles. In a frequently illustrated episode, he was taken to a sanctuary of the Sun and the Moon, where two trees, one male (Sun) and the other female (Moon), prophesied his death in Babylon.

Alexander and the soothsayer at the trees of the Sun and Moon: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 18v

Determined to explore the outer reaches of the world, Alexander used griffins to ascend into the skies and a diving bell to explore the depths of the ocean.

Alexander’s flight with griffins, and his submarine adventure: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 20v

Alexander meets blemmyae and horse-like creatures; the burial of Bucephalus; Alexander sees caladrius birds with sick people; a two-headed serpent, elephants and other beasts: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 21v

Having arrived at the ocean, Alexander’s men were exhausted. They turned towards home, finally reaching the city of Babylon, where they were presented with an ill omen, a child with the legs of a wild beast, which foretold Alexander’s death. According to legend, he was given a poisoned drink at a banquet.

Having bid farewell to his men, who filed past his deathbed, Alexander died shortly afterwards and was buried in a golden sarcophagus, whose whereabouts remain unknown to this day.

Alexander is served a poisoned drink at a feast in Babylon: his death and burial: Royal MS 15 E VI, ff. 22v, 23v

In the battle over Alexander’s succession, his mother Olympias was captured by Cassander, who seized the crown by having Alexander’s son murdered. Olympias was cruelly put to death, denied burial and her body left out to be devoured by dogs and birds, as described and illustrated on the final page of the Alexander legend in this manuscript.

The death of Olympias, with her corpse eaten by dogs: Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 24v

The Talbot Shrewsbury Book can be seen in our Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth exhibition until 19 February 2023.

Chantry Westwell

Posted by Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Manuscripts at 12:01 AM in Alexander exhibition , Exhibitions , Manuscripts , Medieval | Permalink

13 February 2023

Magic fountains and peacocks

One of the star objects in our current exhibition, Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, is perhaps the most famous of all western manuscripts of the French Alexander Romance. Known as Bodley MS 264 from the collections of the Bodleian Libraries in Oxford, this is a large volume, packed with stories and pictures. Particularly famous for its magnificent cycle of illustrations, this manuscript also contains the most complete version of the Roman d’Alexandre, a rich catalogue of Alexander’s adventures on his journeys of conquest and exploration.

In one episode from the Roman d’Alexandre, the Greeks pass through a land with three wondrous springs that, in turn, restore lost youth, confer immortality and bring the dead back to life. Much to his annoyance, Alexander is unable to bathe in the second spring and achieve immortality because Enoch, one of his companions, finds it first. As punishment for using up the spring’s power, Alexander has Enoch imprisoned in a stone pillar until the end of time.

One of nine full-page miniatures of Alexander’s adventures, including the episode of the three magic springs on the lower right(Tournai, Flanders, 1344): The Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford, Bodley MS 264, f. 67v

In addition to the myriad stories in the Roman d’Alexandre itself, further accounts of Alexander’s exploits, taken from the most diverse sources, are interpolated into the main text of this manuscript, and a sequel added. Here follows a list of the additional material.

Fuerre de Gadres ('The Foray of Gadres')

In this episode, a small troop of Greek soldiers steal cattle to feed the troops besieging Tyre. They are attacked by a superior force and fight valiantly until Alexander rescues them.

Three scenes in Fuerre de Gadres: (1) Alexander sends out his troops; (2) a battle at Tyre; (3) Alexander hears that his men are in trouble: Bodley MS 264, f. 21v

Prise de Defur ('The Capture of Defur')

In this chivalric exploit, Alexander answers a call for help by the knight, Gratien. He slays the evil Duke of Melcis and captures his city of Defur.

In the Prise de Defur, Alexander meets Gratien, before he defeating the Duke of Melcis in a tournament: Bodley MS 264, f. 101v

Voeux du paon ('The Vows of the Peacock')

A series of vows are taken over a peacock that is served at a banquet attended by Alexander. Nine knights vow to perform deeds of valour, and three maidens vow to find husbands of Alexander’s choice. The deeds are accomplished and the story ends with a celebration of the marriages.

Alexander at the banquet in the Voeux du Paon: Bodley MS 264, f. 163v

Le Restor du Paon

A continuation of the Voeux du Paon legend, in which a further vow to re-make the peacock in gold is taken, and a debate is held on the merits of the vows.

Two knights and two maidens with the golden peacock: Bodley MS 264, f. 182r

Voyage au Paradis terrestre ('The Journey to Paradise')

This episode is on display in our exhibition. Alexander journeys to the gates of Paradise but is forbidden entry despite his show of strength.

Alexander’s men at the gates of Paradise: Bodley MS 264, f. 186r

Vengeance Alexandre ('The Avenging of Alexander')

In this sequel to the Romance, Alexander’s son Alior plots his revenge on those responsible for his father’s death. Alior and Candace, his mother, destroy the supporters of the treacherous Antipater (who had poisoned Alexander) and his son.

Alexander’s family and companions plan their revenge after his death: Bodley MS 264, f. 196v

Also transmitted in Bodley MS 264 is a unique extract from the poem known as Alexander and Dindimus, and a copy of Marco Polo’s Voyages.

Alexander and Didymus

A fragmentary alliterative poem in Middle English consisting of five letters between Alexander and Dindimus, King of the Gymnophysists, in which they discuss their ways of life. Alexander's excessive pride in worldly deeds is shown to be misguided.

Alexander and Didymus, seated naked in caves, discuss philosophy: Bodley MS 264, f. 211r

Marco Polo, Voyages

Marco Polo in the land of the Great Khan: Bodley MS 264, f. 218r

Don’t miss this fascinating manuscript in Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth, on display at the British Library until 19 February 2023.

Chantry Westwell

Posted by Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Manuscripts at 12:01 AM in Alexander exhibition , Exhibitions , Illuminated manuscripts , Manuscripts , Medieval | Permalink

12 February 2023

Mermaids, sirens and Alexander the Great

What's the difference between a mermaid and a siren? This isn't a trick question, but a conundrum that can occur when describing certain mythical creatures. Sirens are usually deadly creatures associated with enchanting melodies, whereas mermaids or merpeople are not threatening on the whole. Ariel, in the Disney animated film, The Little Mermaid (1989), based on the classic fairy-tale by Hans Christian Andersen, is not a harmful creature, but a young mermaid who wishes to become human and join our world above water.

Sirens, on the other hand, have different intentions. One of the oldest legends of sirens comes from ancient Greek mythology. In Book XII of Homer’s Odyssey, Circe warned Odysseus of the sirens he would encounter on his sea journey back to Ithaca. Odysseus followed Circe's advice and managed to resist the sirens' charms by plugging his sailors’ ears with beeswax. But Odysseus still wished to hear the sirens’ beautiful melody, and so he tied himself to the ship's mast to stop himself being lured by the sirens and turning off course into their shallow, rocky waters.

Two sirens attacking the sleeping crew of the ship, in the Queen Mary Psalter (England, 1310–1320): Royal MS 2 B VII, f. 97r

Sirens and mermaids also appear in legends about Alexander the Great. The fantastical elements of Alexander’s life stemmed from the tradition of the Greek Alexander Romance attributed to Pseudo-Callisthenes, translated and re-worked into many different languages during the Middle Ages. According to these popular legends, during his conquest Alexander and his soldiers came across a river full of reeds, where they discovered beautiful women with long hair down to their ankles. Unfortunately, the Macedonian conqueror soon discovered that these women were not as friendly as they first seemed, since they dragged some of his soldiers underwater, embracing them until they drowned, as illustrated in this French version of the Alexander Romance.

Alexander encountering women living in the water (Southern Netherlands, c. 1290–1300): Harley MS 4979, f. 68r

A similar episode appears in our Alexander exhibition in a manuscript on loan from the National Library of Wales, preserving a version of the Historia de preliis in which Alexander’s soldiers managed to capture two sirens above water.

Alexander’s men encountering the sirens (England, 15th century) Aberystwyth, Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru, Peniarth MS 481D, f. 90r

In some versions of the legends, Alexander and his soldiers also encountered a population of merpeople, naked humans who lived permanently in the sea, but were not violent or harmful to Alexander and his soldiers.

Miniature of Alexander encountering men and women living in the water (Rouen, c. 1445): Royal MS 15 E VI, f. 20r

The similar appearances and habitats of sirens and merpeople can make it tricky for adventurers to discern whether water-living humans are friend or foe. At one point during his ascent of Mount Purgatory, Dante Alighieri’s protagonist of the Divina Commedia is lured by a siren in a dream; it does not have a hybrid body, but appears as a beautiful woman, fully human, and singing. The poet describes how the woman’s decaying features turn beautiful as the pilgrim gazes upon her, and she starts to sing her melody. Fortunately, Dante is saved from the siren’s charm by Beatrice, who rips the siren’s clothes to reveal a horrible stench from her body, breaking her captivating spell.

Dante’s encounter with the two Slothful and the Siren (Tuscany, c. 1444–1450): Yates Thompson MS 36, f. 98v

As we have seen, sirens have encompassed various forms. Classical tradition depicts them as part-woman and part-bird. During the Middle Ages, they also start to adopt a fish-like hybridity due to their association with water, or sometimes they have no obvious animal qualities like the sirens of the Alexander legends and the Commedia.

In bestiaries, sirens often appear accompanied by an illustration portraying their deceptive behaviour. In the example below, a siren is depicted alongside another hybrid creature, namely a centaur. In this illustration, one of the sailors plugs his ear in a similar manner to the sailors in the Odyssey, to block out the sound of the siren’s charm. Sadly, it's too late for his shipmate, who is already being pulled by his hair into the sea, entranced by the siren's beauty and her melody.

Miniature of a siren pulling a sailor from a boat, next to a centaur (Northern France, 2nd or 3rd quarter of the 13th century): Sloane MS 278, f. 47r

Mermaids and sirens also frequently appear in the margins of Psalters as symbols of temptation. In the Luttrell Psalter a siren holds a mirror and a comb, perhaps as a warning against the lure of vanity and luxury.

Detail of a bas-de-page scene of a mermaid (England, 1325–1340): Add MS 42130, f. 70v

Our major exhibition Alexander the Great: The Making of a Myth is at the British Library until 19 February 2023. Tickets can be bought in advance or on the day, subject to availability, and you can explore more on our Alexander the Great website.

Giulia Gilmore

Posted by Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Manuscripts at 12:01 AM in Alexander exhibition , Exhibitions , Manuscripts , Medieval | Permalink

Medieval manuscripts blog

1178 posts categorized "Medieval"

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Alexander the Great: a life in pictures

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Mermaids, sirens and Alexander the Great

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