When the East India Company began to look for a base in the Philippine islands in order to gain access to the China trade, attention focussed on the Sulu archipelago, lying east of the northern tip of Borneo. In January 1761, the Scottish hydrographer Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808) arrived on the island of Jolo, the seat of the Sultan of Sulu, charged with the task of negotiating for a trading post for the Company. The then ruler of Sulu was Sultan Muhammad Muizzuddin, also known as Bantilan. He was the younger brother of Sultan Azimuddin I, who at the time of Dalrymple’s visit had been in exile in Manila since 1748 because of local opposition towards his policy of friendship towards Spanish Jesuit missionaries. Following the death of Muizzuddin in 1763 and the brief accession of his son, Sultan Muhammad Azimuddin II, Dalrymple was instrumental in helping Sultan Azimuddin I (usually referred to in European-language sources as ‘Alimuddin’) to return from Manila to Sulu and re-accede to the throne in 1764, where he ruled until his death in 1778.  


Alexander Dalrymple, in a painting of c.1765 attributed to John Thomas Seton (c.1735-1806). Copyright National Museums of Scotland.


A mosque in Sulu, from Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, 1844.  British Library, 10001.d vol.5, opp. p. 354.

Between 1761 and 1764 Dalrymple negotiated and signed four major treaties with successive sultans of Sulu, leading to the establishment of an East India Company trading post on the island of Balambangan in 1773. Most of the original bilingual treaty papers have survived in the India Office Records in the British Library: the first treaty of 1761 was in Malay and English; the second treaty of 1763 was also originally in Malay and English, but only the Spanish translation of the Malay has survived; and the third and fourth treaties of 1764 were in Tausug (the main language of Sulu) and English.


First Sulu Treaty of 28 January 1761, signed between Sultan Muhammad Muizzuddin of Sulu and Alexander Dalrymple for the East India Company. British Library, IOR: H/629, pp.456-457.

The English texts of the Treaties are well known, but the Malay and Tausug texts, written in Arabic script, have never been studied, and a close examination inevitably reveals a number of differences with the English text. A typical example is the English text of the first Treaty of 1761, which in clause 1 states that the British shall be granted ‘perpetual’ possession of the ground for their settlement, a word which is absent in the Malay version. But perhaps the most poignant aspect of this Treaty is the addendum found on the reverse of the Malay page: a strong rejection of the sale of opium, and a tight control on arms.  This clause – which is unnumbered and does not appear in any published English version of the treaty – appears to have been included at the request of the Sulus, judging from the detailed exposition in four lines of Malay, ‘The aforementioned trade goods prohibited by His Highness Sultan Muhammad Muizzuddin are opium, while no kinds of arms, big or small, may be sold to to anyone, even to the children and grandchildren of His Highness the Sultan, without the express permission of His Highness the Sultan; only His Highness the Sultan may buy these goods,’ compared with the laconic one-line English translation ‘Opium is contraband & arms & ammunition to any but the Sultan’.  Yet Dalrymple himself apparently strongly supported this prohibition; the culprit responsible for later developing the Sulu trade in opium and arms was the unscrupulous John Herbert, chief of the East India Company post at Balambangan, who was also responsible for a massive fraud against the Company itself which led to the financial collapse of the Balambangan settlement.


Addendum to the first Sulu Treaty of 28 January 1761, banning the sale of opium and restricting the sale of arms, in Malay with brief English translation: Maka adapun dagangan yang dilarangkan Paduka Seri Sultan Muhammad Muizzuddin yang telah tersebut itu iaitu apiun, dan demikian lagi segala alat senjata besar kecil tiada boleh dijual kepada orang lain, jikalau pada pihak anak cucu Paduka Seri Sultan sekalipun jika bukan izin daripada Paduka Seri Sultan, hanya Paduka Seri Sultan yang membeli jua adanya. Opium is contraband & arms & ammunition to any but the Sultan.  British Library, IOR: H/629, p.455.

The first Treaty is also notable for high standard of the formal Malay language used, and its proficient calligraphy. An unusual aspect of the diplomatics of the treaties is that when the various royal Sulu seals were stamped across two pages, the two sheets of paper were first folded along an inner vertical margin, with the seal applied across the folds, resulting in an impression of two halves when the paper was flattened out.  The East India Company seals on the same documents, however, are simply stamped on the flattened sheet of paper. This peculiar method of sealing is not found in any other Muslim kingdom in Southeast Asia. Interestingly, the only other Islamic seal impression known displaying the same characteristic of having been stamped across the folds of a document, yielding a two-part impression, is the iconic seal impression of the Mughal emperor Babur, found on what is possibly the oldest surviving original Mughal document, a land grant dated 1527.


A second copy of the Malay text of the first Sulu Treaty of 28 January 1761, ratified in September 1761by 24 nobles of Sulu listed on the right-hand page. British Library, IOR: H/629, pp.460-461. 

Further ratification of the first Sulu Treaty of January 1761, signed in Manila on 20 November 1761 by Sultan Muhammad Azimuddin I. This document was probably obtained by Dalrymple, who appears to have been in Manila from 9 November-1 December 1761 (pers.comm., Andrew Cook).  British Library, IOR: H/629, p.459.


Dalrymple’s third Sulu Treaty, in Tausug and English, signed between Sultan Muhammad Azimuddin I of Sulu and Alexander Dalrymple for the English East India Company, Jolo, Sulu, 2 July 1764.  British Library, IOR: H/629, p.488-489.


Dalrymple’s fourth Sulu Treaty, in Tausug and English, signed between Sultan Muhammad Azimuddin I of Sulu and Alexander Dalrymple for the English East India Company, Jolo, Sulu, 28 September 1764. British Library, IOR: H/629, p.pp. 495–502.

Further reading:
Allen, J. de V., Stockwell, A. J., and Wright, L. R., A collection of treaties and other documents affecting the states of Malaysia 1761-1963.  London: Oceana, 1980. 2 v. [The Sulu treaties are published in v.2, pp.371-388.]
Cook, Andrew S., Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808), hydrographer to the East India Company and the Admiralty, as publisher : a catalogue of books and charts.  Ph.D. thesis, University of St Andrews, 1993.
Costa, H. de la, ‘Muhammad Alimuddin I, Sultan of Sulu, 1735-1773’, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1965, 38 (1):43-76.
Majul,Cesar Adib, Muslims in the Philippines.  Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1999.
Warren, James Francis, The Sulu Zone 1768-1898.  Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1981.

Annabel Teh Gallop, Lead Curator, Southeast Asia

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Historic documents and early printed books from Thailand came to Britain mainly as a result of trade and missionary contacts. The earliest period of Thai printing, from ca.1835-1890, is well represented in the Thai collection in the British Library due to a gift by Christian missionaries of about 100 texts. Some of these are unique copies, including the only known copy of the first Thai book ever printed in Thailand, a Christian text published in 1837 (ORB.30/894). In the early 20th century, all publications by the Thai National Library (formerly Vajiranana Library) were deposited at the British Museum Library.

Through careful development and the generosity of donors, the collection of rare books and other printed historical materials in the Thai language (including maps, journals and newspapers, photographs, stamps, etc.) in the British Library has become a major  resource for research and re-printing in the UK and worldwide. The Thai rare books collection is particularly strong in the areas of Thai language and literature, Buddhism, travel and exploration reports, history and culture. Important Thai authors such as Chulalongkorn (Rama V), Vajiravudh (Rama VI), Vajiranana Varorasa, Damrong Rajanubhab, Anuman Rajadhon, and Sunthon Phu are well represented.

Front cover of Sunthon Phu’s Sepha ruang phraratcha phongsawadan, a poetical version of the chronicle of Ayudhya (Bangkok: Sophon, 1922). The  booklet of 125 x 190 mm is bound in a hardcover with a gilt and black image on the front, resembling gilt and lacquer manuscript covers showing devas and mythical lions. British Library, Siam.163.

Chulalongkorn (Rama V, reigned 1868 – 1910) has often been credited with the founding of the modern Thai state. His diplomatic policies averted colonial domination, and at the same time he opened the country to Western education. A government press turned out textbooks and a weekly newspaper, The Royal Gazette, and freedom of the press and religion were guaranteed by law to encourage the development of other newspapers. In 1905 the National Library (Vajiranana National Library) was founded by amalgamating three royal libraries: the Buddhasasanasangaha Library, the Mondiradhamma and the Vajiranana Library. The National Library became one of the main publishers of the time.


Front cover of Botlakhon ruang Ngo Pa, a theatre play by King Chulalongkorn published in 1923 in Bangkok by Sophon Printers. (ORB.30/5361).

Chulalongkorn's son and successor, Vajiravudh (Rama VI, reigned 1910-25), received his education in Britain (Sandhurst and Oxford). The king wrote extensively on nationalist themes. He made great efforts to establish a general education system, which was officially brought into practice in 1921. Nationalist education and propaganda are very well reflected in publications of the 1920s.

Publishers and markets
The very first printed books in Thai, translations of Christian texts, were produced in 1835 in Singapore and New York (ORB.30/894-897). The first Thai printing press was established in 1836 in Bangkok by Catholic missionaries. Initially, interest in publishing was confined mostly to foreign missionary organisations which published numerous translations of Bible tracts, commentaries and catechisms into Thai.

Khamson phrasasana, a small booklet containing a summary of the Gospel of Matthew. It was printed in Singapore in 1835. The distinctive handcrafted Thai typeface was the first to be used for printing texts in Thai language. British Library, ORB.30/896.

However, very soon the royal court also became interested in the printing press and first made use of it in 1839 to publish a royal proclamation banning opium smoking and trade. In 1858, King Mongkut (Rama IV) commanded the government to establish a printing press for its own use to print The Royal Gazette (Ratkitchanubek), as well as administrational papers and records (chotmaihet), handbooks, laws, travel reports, speeches, and descriptions of the provinces of Thailand and of foreign countries.

The Buddhist Sangha also produced books and teaching materials in large quantities for educational purposes. The mass production of translations of Buddhist scriptures and commentaries from Pali into Thai helped to improve the knowledge of the Pali canon among all levels of the society.

During the reign of King Vajiravudh the publishing of literary works reached a climax. He himself was a dedicated writer and translator of literary works from Western languages into Thai.

Title page of Nirat muang London, a 95-page ballad describing the beauty of London by Mom Rajoday, who was chief interpreter of the Siamese embassy to London in 1857-1858. Printed by Bradley’s Press in Bangkok, 1881. British Library, Siam.23.

Buddhist monasteries played an important role as publishers: their cremation volumes, which were often sponsored by private persons or families, appeared in large numbers and were dedicated to a variety of topics, from Buddhism to linguistics, literature, anthropology, culture, history and archaeology. By the end of the 19th century some commercial publishing houses had been established in Bangkok, and more followed during the first decades of the 20th century, such as Bradley’s Press, Smith’s Press, Union Press, Thai Printers,  Sophon Printers, Bamrung Nukunkit Printers, Sophanaphiphatthanakon, as well as the publishing arms of public bodies such as the Siam Society and the Vajiranana National Library.       

Characteristics of early Thai books
For book printing, metal movable type was used right from the beginning. Paper imported from Europe was used as printing material as the locally produced Khoi paper (made from Mulberry bark) was too rough for printing. Whereas the first printers were rather small workshops, by the end of the 19th century mechanized printing had also been introduced. Illustrations, though rare, were produced by using the method of lithography. After 1900, photographic reproduction was applied more and more often.    


Illustration in the book Botlakhon ruang Ngo Pa, a theatre play about a love romance between two Senoi people, by King Chulalongkorn, 1923. For the illustrations photographs of one of the king’s favorite servants, a Senoi boy, were used. British Library, ORB.30/5361.

The shape of books took the rather simple form of paperback brochures. Books on religious topics or important literary works often had a stronger binding and hard covers. Leather or skin covers were rather unusual, but cloth covers made from silk or cotton were quite common. At the beginning of the 20th century, cover decorations and illustrations became more important. The title pages were often decorated with the emblem of the editing institution, for example Buddhist institutions or public bodies.

Some examples of rare Thai books in the British Library, which have been fully digitised in a collaborative project with Northern Illinois University, can be found on the homepage of the Southeast Asia Digital Library hosted by Northern Illinois University.

Jana Igunma, Ginsburg Curator for Thai, Lao and Cambodian

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